Political Theory: meaning and approaches.

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What is the meaning of Political Theory and what are its major approaches ?

In the study of the social sciences, approaches are extremely important because they help us identify problems for our study and decide on the appropriate data to be used. One point of view suggests its own method whereas the opposite is not true. For example, the practical approach is related to the scientific method and the normative approach is related to the philosophical method.

Standard Approach: The normative approach poses questions based on 'norms' or 'standards' in the study of social sciences for the purpose of evaluating values. Unlike the empirical approach which is concerned about 'what happened and why', the normative approach emphasizes on 'what should happen'.

 Sometimes, the normative approach may be based on empirical assumptions to find out how or what a particular situation should be or what the state of affairs in a country should be. For example, if the issue of war is the principal subject of investigation, the normative approach may draw help from empirical assumptions to explain the causes of war or the prospect of peace, along with the basic normative question of whether war is an international solution. as a means. Whether the dispute is justified or not.

The normative approach highlights its inclination towards a specific system of things or an order that results from a commitment to a moral duty or universal necessity.

There are some other assumptions, which are essentially standard, but can also be proved to be empirically valid. Consider a statement like this, 'Corruption must end in order to make the working of the government transparent and pro-people.' Such a statement, despite being a standard assumption, also satisfies the empirical test as the functioning of governments around the world on the basis of verifiable data that can be proved in a political system with minimal corruption. There is a government that is sufficiently transparent and committed to the welfare of the people.

What is the Institutional Approach in Political theory ?

 An in-depth investigation of political institutions to study the discipline of political science is called the institutional approach.

An institutional approach in the study of political science refers to a detailed study of government, its structures and the body of rules within which it is required to operate.

Furthermore, the study of political parties, their structures, ideologies and functioning, which are concerned with political processes, is an important section of the institutional approach.

The institutional approach involves the study of all forms of governments. In addition, the institutional approach also emphasizes examining the levels of government which means whether the levels of governance are related to federal, state or local institutions. This approach also lays down the analysis of the powers and functioning of the organs of government such as the legislature, executive and judiciary.

What are major Drawbacks of institutional approach ?

 i) It focuses exclusively on political institutions. Consequently, the individual, the primary actor in the political process, is completely exempted from the institutional approach. This has led to a situation where the study of voting behavior and political preferences of an individual has been overlooked.

 ii) The followers of the institutional approach in the field of international politics confine their studies only to the investigation of international political institutions such as the United Nations and its affiliated agencies and completely ignore the subject matter of international politics such as foreign policy, diplomacy, etc. Huh. international law and so on;

 iii) Since it is concerned only with the study of established political institutions, it also extends to the idea of ​​other phenomena such as violence, political movements and agitations, wars, revolutions and crises of our times, terrorism, which certainly affect politics. completely ignores;

 iv) Lastly, it also ignores the status and influence of informal groups that have a bearing on the politics of almost all states.

The contemporary definition of behavioral approach, provided by Geoffrey K. Roberts in A Dictionary of Political Analysis, published in 1971: "Political behavior, as a field of study within political science, deals with those aspects of human behavior that occur within the state or other political community, for political purposes or with political motivation. The focus is on the individual—as voters, leaders, revolutionaries, party members, opinion leaders, etc., rather than on a group or political system in, but it necessarily takes into account the constraints of the group's influences on the behavior of the individual.

The Constraints Of The System, The Individual's Opportunities For Action, And The Effects Of Political Culture On His Attitudes And Political Habits.  "

 

Criticism Of Behaviorism: Behaviorism Has Been Criticized By Both Conservative And Radical Political Scientists, For Its So- Called Attempt To Devalue The Discipline.   The Pragmatic Approach To Conservatives Poses A Serious Threat To The Prospect Of Political Philosophy.   According To Christian Bey, Behaviorism Was Nothing But A Pseudo-Political Science Because It Did Not Represent 'Real' Political Research.   The Main Point Of His Criticism Was That The Applied Approach Gave Too Much Importance To Empiricism And Ignored The Normative And Ethical Examination Of Political Science.   Radical Critics Point Out That It Is Not Possible To Study Political Science By Separating Facts From Values.  

 

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Marxist Approach

  The Marxist Approach To Politics Is That The Political Process Is Seen As Incapable Of Resolving The Prevailing Class-Struggle Because Politics Is Used By The Dominant Class Itself To Suppress The Disadvantaged.   In Marxist Analysis, As Long As Classes Exist In Society, The State And Political Process Will Continue To Be Used As Tools Of The Dominant Class To Oppress The Dependent Class Commonly Known As The Workers.  

 

The Marxist Approach Has Been Criticized Not Only By Proponents Of Free Market Economy Or Agents Of Established Religions But Also By Political Leftists, Democratic Socialists And Social Democrats.   The Main Thrust Of The Criticism Is That The Institutions Of Society And The State Cannot Be Fully Understood Only On The Basis Of Class Struggle, Domination Of Capitalists And Proletarian Revolution .   Many Liberal Democrats And Even Anarchists Outright Reject The Idea Of ​​a Transitory Period Of Proletarian Dictatorship.   Economists, Especially Those Devoted To The Free Market Economy And Neoliberalism, Criticize The Marxist Approach For Abandoning The Institution Of Private Property And Recommending State Control Over The Major Means Of Production.   In His Opinion Such An Approach Is Not Only Insufficient To Explain Political, Social And Economic Institutions But It Is Also Impractical And Against Human Nature.  

 

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Post Marxist Approach

Thus, The Post-Marxist Approach To Social Theory Gained Recognition Around 1960.   The Failure Of The Soviet Model To Replicate Itself Beyond The Ussr Made It An Important Tool Of Analysis Of Political Theory.  

The Writings Of Two Thinkers, Louis Althusser And Michel Foucault, Largely Shaped Post-Marxist Theory, With Other Philosophers And Intellectuals Also Adding Economic, Historical, Feminist, Literary And Cultural Dimensions To The Theory.   These Thinkers Include Judith Butler, John Froe, Richard Wolf, Ernesto Laclau, Tony Bennett And Others.   Post Marxist Theory, Instead Of Underlining The Primacy Of Class Struggle And Humanist Concerns About The Exploited And Oppressed Sections Of Society, Focuses On The Sexual, Class And Ethnic Divisions That Exist In Almost All Societies.   Post Marxism In This Sense Is A Critique Of Marxism And Also Offers An Alternative Theory.  

First, Post-Marxism Claims That Socialism Is A Catastrophe As A Theory Of Economics And Society.   Later Theories That Have Either Borrowed From Socialism Or Adapted To Explain Society Are Equally Spurious.  

 

Secondly, Post-Marxist Thinkers Argue That The Marxist Tension On Social Classes Is Reductionist, To Say The Least, Because Classes Are Bound To Break Down.   The Real Criteria For The Political Division Of Society Are Embedded In Various Identities Such As Race, (In The Case Of India, Caste), Gender, Ethnicity, Sexual Preference, Etc.  

Third, The Institution Of The State Is Against Democracy And Freedom.   It Has Also Miserably Failed To Deliver The Benefit Of The Welfare State.   Post-Marxists Want That The State Should Be Replaced By A Civil Society Which Can Ensure Democracy More Honestly And Also Bring About Social Change For The Better.  

 Fourth, The Idea Of ​​ A Central Plan Drawn Up By The Socialist State Also Comes Under Scrutiny By Post-Marxists.   They Argue That It Is Basically The Product Of A Powerful Bureaucracy, Which Creates Barriers For Efficient Exchange Of Goods Between Producers.   They Also Affirm That Markets (With Limited Regulations If Not Completely Free) Can Drive More Consumption And Guarantee Professional Delivery.  

The Fifth Post-Marxist Claim Is That The Struggle Of Socialists To Seize Political Power Is Actually Corrupting The Political System, Resulting In The Emergence Of Authoritarian Rule.   These Regimes Suppress Democracy, Freedom And Civil Society.  

 

Sixth, Revolutions In The Contemporary Scenario Are Either A Very Difficult Prospect Or Even If They Are Brought About, They Lead To Dire Consequences.   More Often Than Not, Social Change Through Revolution Leads To The Emergence Of Authoritarian Rule.  

 

Seventh, The Classes No Longer Exist.   In The Contemporary Situation, Post-Marxists Emphasize, There Are 'Fragmented Spaces' Where Specific Groups With Unique Identities And Living In Specific Localities Are Engaged In A Process Of Self-Help And Sustained Through Cooperation And External Support.   .  

 

The Eighth Claim Of Marxists Is That Class Struggle Does Not Produce Concrete Results.   It Can Only Create Social Upheaval, Destruction And Defeat.  

 

Post-Marxism Critics: Post-Marxism Critics Say That Although They Pretend Not To Have A Political Agenda And That Their Arguments Constitute An Independent Theory, The Fact Is That They Directly Or Indirectly Strengthen Neoliberals.   And Hurt The Interests Of The Working Class.  

 Critics Also Allege That Post-Marxist Organizations Are Funded And Funded By World Funding Agencies And Local Governments With A Specific Agenda Of Promoting Neoliberalism.  

 

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Feminist Approach To Political Theory :

 We Can Say That Feminism Attempts To Bring To Light An Approach To The Study Of The Social Sciences That Helps To Establish, Promote And Define Social Concepts, And Not From The Point Of View Of The Male, Which Is The Case In The Recent Past.   Has Been The Case Till Now.  

 

A Feminist Approach To Political Theory Emphasizes Issues Such As Gender Politics, Power Relations, Sexist Characteristics Of Political Ideas And Structures, Women's Rights, Discrimination Based On Gender, Stereotyping Of Gender Roles, Sexual Objectification, The Oppression Of The Weaker Sex And Patriarchy.  

 A Liberal Feminist Theory Is About The Equality Of Men And Women In The Fields Of Politics And Law That Should Be Achieved By Legal And Structural Reforms.  

 A Socialist Feminist Theory Establishes A Connection Between The Oppression Of Women And The Exploitation Of Workers.  

 A Radical Feminist Approach To Political Theory Advocates The Complete Demolition Of The Male-Controlled Capitalist Hierarchy That Is The Root Cause Of Discrimination Against Women And The Reconstruction Of A Society Based On Absolute Gender Equality.  

A Marxist Feminist Approach Puts Forward The Notion That The Elimination Of Class Oppression Would Lead To The Elimination Of Gender Oppression.  

 

This Has Made Gender Politics A Central Issue In The Understanding Of Oppression.  

Rejects The Anthropological Theories Of The Division Of Labor Because They Are Written From The Male Point Of View As They Directly Reinforce The Subordination Of Women In The Economic And Political Spheres.  

 The Feminist Approach To Political Theory Is Its Reluctance To Accept Heterosexuality As An Absolute Fact.   It Believes That The Value Of A Woman Lies In Marrying A Man And Meeting His Sexual, Emotional And Domestic Needs.